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# Primal Nebula

Interesting Science & Engineering Stories

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## Posts

- [Where Did Trees Come From?](https://primalnebula.com/where-did-trees-come-from/) - There were no lush forests, no soil, and grass wouldn’t exist for another 300 million years. It was almost impossible for anything to survive on land. So where did trees come from? Despite this desolate landscape, there was one strange form of life that towered over everything. These are Prototaxites, giant living organisms that once
- [The CIA’s Underwater Spy Device](https://primalnebula.com/the-cias-underwater-spy-device/) - October 1971. An American spy submarine has just crossed into Soviet waters, an area completely off-limits to outsiders. Most people onboard the submarine have no idea why they’re here, but some do. They’re searching for an underwater telephone cable that connects a brand new Soviet nuclear base to its headquarters over 1,000 miles away. Attached
- [The Great Bank Heist of Nice](https://primalnebula.com/the-great-bank-heist-of-nice/) - It was gone. In a single morning, more than 40 million dollars had just disappeared from one of France's biggest banks. When the police finally got into the vault, it was obvious that this was no ordinary bank robbery. Instead of breaking into the bank itself, the thieves had tunneled all the way from the
- [The Engineering of the Ford Model T](https://primalnebula.com/the-engineering-of-the-ford-model-t/) - It’s 1924, you’re taking your family on a weekend trip to the big city. For every generation before you, this would have been a difficult train journey or a multi-day journey by horse. But not for you, because you just bought a car! Suddenly, you could travel anywhere at any time. It was the ultimate
- [The Race to Invent Color TV](https://primalnebula.com/the-race-to-invent-color-tv/) - This was the moment the US officially changed from black-and-white to color TV, becoming the first country to do so. Over the next 30 years, every country in the world made their switch to color TV. These events were a huge deal. But in reality, color TV had already been invented almost 50 years before
- [The Crazy Engineering of Silk](https://primalnebula.com/the-crazy-engineering-of-silk/) - It’s the year 552, somewhere in Northern Persia. Two Roman monks are returning to Europe after a long pilgrimage around China. But what started out as a religious expedition has now turned into a case of industrial espionage. Inside their canes are hundreds of silkworm eggs, smuggled from the silk factories of China. When these
- [How Fire Investigation Works](https://primalnebula.com/finding-the-source-of-a-fire/) - November 18th, 1987. Like every night on the London Underground, it’s packed. A train on the Piccadilly line has just pulled into King’s Cross, one of Britain’s busiest stations. The hoard of passengers get off, but as they squeeze their way up the old wooden escalators, one passenger notices a strange glow coming from within
- [The Incredible VFX of Old Movies](https://primalnebula.com/the-incredible-vfx-of-old-movies/) - This is a scene from Stanley Kubrick’s 2001: A Space Odyssey, released in 1968. This was before computers and digital effects, so how do you think he made this pen float in space? The obvious answer is string, but this would get tangled up every time the pen rotated, and would ultimately be impossible to
- [How IKEA Revolutionized Furniture](https://primalnebula.com/how-ikea-revolutionized-furniture/) - This is the LACK coffee table, one of IKEA’s most important products. If you had to design the simplest table possible, you’d come up with this. It has no fancy angles, no intricate details, no patterns and yet, it’s an engineering masterpiece. Thanks to its simplicity, it hit the market in 1981 at just under
- [The Genius Economics of the Empire State Building](https://primalnebula.com/the-genius-economics-of-the-empire-state-building/) - This is the Empire State Building. When it was built almost 100 years ago, it became the tallest building in the world by far. It was its own vertical city, housing thousands of workers, a cafe, its own postal system - and thanks to its counterintuitive design, it became a money-making machine. Today, almost 100
- [Garbo - The Spy That Tricked The Nazis](https://primalnebula.com/garbo-the-spy-that-tricked-the-nazis/) - There really is nothing quite like the element of surprise. When the allied forces appeared over the horizon on the morning of d-day, it completely caught the Nazis off guard. They weren’t ready for such an enormous attack, at least, not here. According to German intelligence, an attack was expected to take place 150 miles
- [The Assassination of Rasputin](https://primalnebula.com/the-assassination-of-rasputin/) - It’s just turned midnight in the Russian capital of St Petersburg. The streets are empty, and with temperatures below freezing, most of the city has gone to sleep. But at a royal palace in the center of the city, a party is being planned - a party for just one person. The special guest is
- [The Hidden Engineering Behind Gas Stations](https://primalnebula.com/the-hidden-engineering-behind-gas-stations/) - It’s 1913, you’re driving along in your brand new Ford Model T - the roof is down, the sun is out, life is good. But you’re running out of gas! Luckily, the world’s first gas station just opened up around the corner - so you pull in and fill up your car in seconds. This
- [The Alhambra's Incredible Medieval Water System](https://primalnebula.com/the-engineering-of-the-alhambras-water-system/) - It’s a cold rainy night in the walled city of Cordoba, medieval Spain. Watchmen guard the city, unaware that an entire army of christian soldiers are about to launch a surprise attack. In a single night, they conquer the entire city, bringing the muslim rule to an end. All over the land, muslim cities were
- [How Mount Rushmore Was Carved](https://primalnebula.com/how-mount-rushmore-was-carved/) - There is something unusual about Mount Rushmore. Unlike most sculptures which look painstakingly crafted, Mount Rushmore almost seems like it formed out of the mountain naturally, and not by the work of a great sculptor. The reality is, Mount Rushmore is not only a work of art, but an engineering masterpiece. Despite having zero artistic
- [Richard III: The Discover of the long lost King](https://primalnebula.com/richard-iii-the-discover-of-the-long-lost-king/) - Some mysteries are just waiting to be solved - and some end up revealing themselves. When the King of England, Richard III, was thrown into his grave 500 years ago, it started one of the biggest mysteries of all time. Centuries of lies, rumours, myths and mistakes led to his burial site becoming shrouded in
- [How Was Venice Built? The Medieval Engineering Behind Venice](https://primalnebula.com/how-was-venice-built/) - The year is 452, the Roman Empire is on the brink of collapse and the Huns have just launched their attack on Northern Italy. Several cities are completely destroyed, forcing the locals to go on the run. They head for a lagoon just off the coast, and take refuge on several small islands, a decision
- [El BIC Cristal: el bolígrafo que dominó el mundo](https://primalnebula.com/el-bic-cristal-el-boligrafo-que-domino-el-mundo/) - Este es el BIC Cristal, posiblemente el producto de mayor éxito jamás fabricado. No importa donde estés en el mundo, encontrarás este boli en casas, oficinas, colegios y prácticamente en todas partes. Este diseño icónico ha llegado a todos los rincones de la Tierra - y es casi seguro que en algún momento de tu
- [The Mona Lisa Art Heist](https://primalnebula.com/the-mona-lisa-art-heist/) - It’s a hot summer’s evening in Paris in the year 1911. For weeks, a record breaking heat wave has been cooking the city, leaving the streets empty and the Louvre quieter than ever. No one dares to go outside - but for one man, it's time to strike. Throughout the night, he pulls off the
- [The Search for the Atocha - The $500 Million Shipwreck](https://primalnebula.com/the-treasure-of-the-atocha-shipwreck/) - It's a cold, stormy night just off the coast of Florida in 1622. A Spanish cargo ship full of gold and silver is desperately trying to make its way back to Spain. But as it passes through the straits of Florida, it sails directly into a hurricane, sending the ship into a world of trouble.
- [Why Cities Are Built On Top of Eachother?](https://primalnebula.com/why-cities-are-built-on-top-of-eachother/) - This is what the Roman Forum looked like in 1864. When archeologists started digging here, they uncovered an entire world of ruins deep underground that hadn’t been seen for centuries. Rome had simply built everything on top of its ancient city. Over time, the city had risen by more than 10 meters, and older buildings
- [The Crazy Journey of Artemis 1](https://primalnebula.com/the-crazy-journey-of-artemis-1/) - The goal with Artemis 1 for example, was to send the Orion capsule around the Moon to test out all of its systems.
- [The Mysterious 30 Year Journey of Apollo 12](https://primalnebula.com/the-mysterious-30-year-journey-of-apollo-12/) - In September 2002, astronomers discovered what they believed to be an asteroid in an unusual orbit around the Earth.
- [The Saturn V's Guidance Problem](https://primalnebula.com/the-saturn-v-guidance-problem/) - As the Saturn V sat on the launch pad, moments away from lifting off and taking the Apollo 11 astronauts to the Moon, NASA commentator Jack King says this. Guidance is internal. It may not seem very significant, but it meant that the Saturn V was now relying on its own guidance system, the one
- [Project Echo - NASA's Balloon Satellites](https://primalnebula.com/project-echo-nasas-balloon-satellites/) - This is Echo, a gigantic metal balloon launched by NASA in the 1960’s. Known as the most beautiful satellite ever launched, it had no electronics and simply bounced radio signals around the world using its reflective surface. Despite its simplicity, it worked extremely well. Soon after it launched, President Eisenhower sent a voice message from
- [Cinder Lake: The Most Moon-like place on Earth](https://primalnebula.com/cinder-lake-nasa-crater-field/) - This is the Sea of Tranquility, the area where humans first walked on the Moon - and this is Arizona. If these pictures weren’t labeled, there would be almost no way of telling them apart. Each crater is exactly the same, down to the size and location. This isn’t some weird hoax, nor is it
- [The Brennan Gyro Monorail from 1910 - an incredible piece of engineering](https://primalnebula.com/the-brennan-gyro-monorail/) - This is the Brennan Monorail, a train from the early 1900’s that seemed to defy the laws of physics. Not only did it keep itself perfectly balanced on a single rail, but it mysteriously leaned into corners without any driver input. This was a real invention - and it was unveiled to the public in
- [The Incredible Paris Pneumatic Clock System from 1880](https://primalnebula.com/the-paris-pneumatic-clock-system/) - This is Paris on the 21st of January 1910, when a flash flood brought chaos to the city. It was one of the worst floods in European history, as the river Seine rose 8 meters above its normal height. Metros were flooded and buildings were destroyed. But more curiously, almost all of the clocks around
- [The BIC Cristal - The Pen That Dominated The World](https://primalnebula.com/the-story-of-the-bic-cristal-pen/) - This is the BIC Cristal, possibly the most successful product ever made. No matter where you are in the world, you’ll find this pen in homes, offices, schools and pretty much everywhere else. This iconic design has reached every corner of the Earth - and at some point in your life, you’ve almost certainly used
- [The Turk - An Unbeatable Chess Playing Robot From the 18th Century](https://primalnebula.com/the-turk-chess-playing-mechanical-robot/) - This is the Turk, a mechanical chess playing robot from the 1700’s that was basically unbeatable. It made its own moves, called checkmate and even laughed in its opponent's face. For almost 90 years, it toured the world, facing some of the best chess players and historical figures, and beating them all. Hundreds of articles
- [The Crew of George 1](https://primalnebula.com/george-1/) - Ralph "Frenchy" LeBlanc Shortly after getting back onto the USS Pine Island, Frenchy underwent a double leg amputation and plastic surgery operations to improve his burns. He was one of the first people ever to get a skin graft. His recovery took months, but he never once lost his sense of humour, the thing that
- [The Incredible Story of the Antarctic Plane Crash](https://primalnebula.com/george-1-arctic-plane-crash/) - On the 30th of December 1946, a US navy seaplane was flying into a snowstorm just off the coast of Antarctica. Onboard were 9 men, taking part in a secret mission to claim Antarctica for the USA. As they approached land, the storm got even worse and the crew lost all visibility, until suddenly. The
- [How New Money Is Created: The Crazy System of Debt Creation](https://primalnebula.com/how-new-money-is-created/) - Every hour of every day, a government facility in Washington D.C. turns paper into money. In order to keep up with demand, these machines are running 24/7, pumping more than 500 million dollars into the US economy every day. But this is only a tiny fraction of how much money is really made. Most of
- [James Webb discovers most distant Galaxy ever](https://primalnebula.com/james-webb-discovers-most-distant-galaxy-ever/) - We’re all familiar with the sound of a car passing by. This distinctive drop in pitch is known as the doppler effect and we notice it the most with sounds. But it also affects light in the exact same way. If light moved slow enough, we would also see the car change color as it
- [Chandrayaan-3: India's 14 days on the Moon](https://primalnebula.com/chandrayaan-3-indias-14-days-on-the-moon/) - The Chandrayaan spacecraft and its rover have been silent on the Moon now for a couple of weeks. The Moon is an incredibly harsh environment. A single night on the Moon lasts for 14 days, meaning the rover and its electronics have to survive mind bogglingly cold temperatures. Without any power to keep it alive,
- [The Pepsi Concorde - Why Blue Paint Caused Problems for Concorde](https://primalnebula.com/the-blue-pepsi-concorde-supersonic-advertisement/) - On the 2nd of April 1996, global superstars Cindy Crawford, Claudia Schiffer and Andre Agassi, stood on the runway at Gatwick Airport, waiting for a plane. But they weren’t there to fly to some exotic destination, the event was the plane itself; a freshly painted, electric blue concorde, emblazoned with the Pepsi logo. Today we’re
- [Concorde's 74 Minute Total Solar Eclipse](https://primalnebula.com/concordes-74-minute-total-solar-eclipse/) - This is Concorde, flying over Africa on a flight like no other. The Sun, which was directly above Concorde, just went completely dark in what was to become the most unique solar eclipse ever witnessed. Total solar eclipses, where the Sun is fully hidden by the Moon, are rare and typically only last for a
- [The Almost Disastrous Space Shuttle Mission STS-93](https://primalnebula.com/the-almost-disastrous-space-shuttle-mission/) - This is the Space Shuttle, lifting off on what was about to become one of its most dangerous journeys into space. Almost immediately, fuel started leaking out of its right engine - and just 5 seconds later, an electrical supply failed, knocking its engine control computers offline. Unaware of what was really going on beneath
- [How Voyager 2 Escaped The Solar System](https://primalnebula.com/how-voyager-2-escaped-the-solar-system/) - In Augst 1989, Voyager 2 flew past planet Neptune, the furthest planet in our solar system. It was the first time that any spacecraft had made the 4 BILLION kilometer journey and very little was known about this gas giant at the time. Neptune is so far away that it has only completed a single
- [How James Webb's MIRI Camera is Cooled Using Sound](https://primalnebula.com/how-james-webbs-miri-camera-is-cooled-using-sound/) - This is MIRI, the mid-infrared camera onboard the James Webb telescope. With this camera, Webb can see extremely distant stars and galaxies that are completely invisible to the human eye. This is only possible by cooling the camera down to just 6 degrees above absolute zero. But why does it need to be so cold?
- [The Mysterious Journey of Apollo 10's Lunar Module "Snoopy"](https://primalnebula.com/where-is-apollo-10s-lunar-module/) - This is the Apollo 10 crew getting ready to leave behind Snoopy, the Lunar Module. This was an important step before the crew could return to Earth, but it didn't quite go as planned. As the explosive bolts released, it blew a hole in the Lunar Module’s hatch. This caused all of the air to
- [NASA's Hidden Underground Bunker Beneath Pad 39A](https://primalnebula.com/nasas-hidden-underground-bunker-beneath-pad-39a/) - Just hours before the lunach of Apollo 11, a NASA engineer was sent to fix a hydrogen leak on the launch tower. The scary thing is, this was 60 meters up and he was standing right next to a partially fueled Saturn V. At launch, the Saturn V contained over two and a half thousands
- [Updating Voyager from 15 Billion Miles Away](https://primalnebula.com/updating-voyager-from-15-billion-miles-away/) - In 2015, NASA put out a job posting looking for a software engineer with a specific set of skills. The person had to be an expert in Fortran and Assembly, two programming languages from the 40’s and 50’s that most young graduates don’t know. The job was to join the very small team of people
- [Surviving Venus: The Venera Space Probe's Crazy Journey](https://primalnebula.com/the-venera-space-probes-on-venus/) - Venera 4 entered Venus' atmosphere in October 1967. At the time, very little was known about this mysterious planet - but scientists believed that under its thick layer of cloud was a world not too different from Earth, with a similar 1 bar atmosphere and Earth-like temperatures. But little did they know what kind of
- [Chess](https://primalnebula.com/chess/)
- [RS-25](https://primalnebula.com/rs-25/)
- [Chandra X-ray Observatory](https://primalnebula.com/chandra-x-ray-observatory/)
- [STS-93](https://primalnebula.com/sts-93/)
- [Space Shuttle](https://primalnebula.com/space-shuttle/)
- [How did NASA broadcast live TV from the Moon?](https://primalnebula.com/how-did-they-broadcast-live-tv-from-the-moon/) - On the 20th of July, 1969, Apollo 11 landed on the Moon. 600 million people around the world watched as Neil Armstrong took mankind’s first steps onto the Lunar surface. This moment captured the excitement of a generation and fulfilled President Kennedy’s goal of landing a man on the Moon by the end of the
- [Places on the Moon, who gets to name them?](https://primalnebula.com/who-names-the-places-on-the-moon/) - Shortly after Apollo 11 touched down on the Moon, Neil Armstrong said “Tranquility Base here, the Eagle has landed”. Tranquility Base was the name that NASA had chosen for the site of the first Moon landing. It’s located in the south-western corner of the Lunar plain called Mare Tranquillitatis or “Sea of Tranquility”. This is
- [Starship Hits Major Milestones during Impressive Test Flight](https://primalnebula.com/starship-flight-test-3-hits-major-milestones/) - SpaceX’s massive Starship rocket launched for the 3rd time on March 14 as the vehicle reached its expected orbit, marking a major milestone for the programme. Starship LaunchFlight Test 3 UpgradesTesting Prior to LaunchFlight Plan ChangesWhat's next for Starship? Starship Launch Though there was a 90-minute delay to liftoff, propellant loading operations proceeded without an
- [NASA and SpaceX Launch Historic Psyche Mission to Metal-Rich Asteroid](https://primalnebula.com/nasa-and-spacex-to-launch-historic-psyche-mission-to-metal-rich-asteroid/) - SpaceX's Falcon Heavy rocket successfully launched NASA's Psyche spacecraft on an escape trajectory on October 13 at 10:19am EDT (14:19 UTC). The spacecraft will now arrive at Asteroid Psyche in July 2029. Overview Asteroid PsycheThe Spacecraft What could Scientists Learn?Build-Up to LaunchLaunch DayPost-Launch DayHow to Watch Overview The spacecraft will explore Asteroid Psyche 16 which
- [How SpaceX Mastered Space Suits](https://primalnebula.com/how-spacex-mastered-space-suits/) - SpaceX began developing its first spacesuit all the way back in 2015 when it hired Hollywood costume designer Jose Fernandez.
- [What Happens When Russia Leaves The ISS?](https://primalnebula.com/what-happens-when-russia-leaves-the-iss/) - This is Baikonur, Kazakhstan on a cold winter's morning in 1998. On this day, the world’s most expensive and impressive engineering project came to life. This is of course the first module of the International Space Station being launched into orbit. Over the next decade, the Americans and the Russians grew the ISS to be
- [SpaceX's 80 Year Old Factory: What is the McGregor Testing Facility?](https://primalnebula.com/spacexs-80-year-old-factory-what-is-the-mcgregor-testing-facility/) - It was December of 2018 when BocaChicaGal first shared these images of what would become Starbase, the home of Starship. Although it wasn’t known at the time, this tiny bit of land in a quiet village in Texas would go on to become one of SpaceX’s most important facilities. But almost 400 miles away in
- [SpaceX's Abandoned Florida Starship Factory](https://primalnebula.com/spacexs-abandoned-florida-starship-factory/) - If you’re a SpaceX fan, you will be very familiar with this place, Boca Chica. For 24 hours every day, this small town in Texas is under constant surveillance from YouTube live streams, space photographers and curious people from all over the world, looking to experience Starship. This incredible and sometimes creepy level of attention
- [SpaceX's Falcon 9 Idendity Problem](https://primalnebula.com/spacexs-falcon-9-idendity-problem/) - On the 12th of February 2015, a Falcon 9 rocket lifted off from the Kennedy Space Center. This was SpaceX’s very first interplanetary mission, sending a climate observation satellite into space. But after deploying the satellite, the Falcon 9’s upper stage was left in a highly elliptical orbit around the Earth. Now, after spending 7
- [How The Soviets Stole The Space Shuttle](https://primalnebula.com/how-the-soviets-stole-the-space-shuttle/) - The first and only landin of the Buran occured in 1981, 7 yeas after the Space Shuttle completed its firsst flight. For over a decade, the Soviet Union had been secretly working on their own space plane called the Buran, which had a remarkable resemblance to the Space Shuttle. With an almost identical shape and
- [The Mysterious Return Of NASA's Centaur Rocket](https://primalnebula.com/the-mysterious-return-of-nasas-centaur-rocket/) - On the 6th of February 2018, the Falcon Heavy launched Starman and his Tesla Roadster into space. After leaving Earth, Starman ended up on an orbit around the sun. The chances of Starman coming back to Earth are extremely low. Its orbit isn’t expected to intersect Earth until the year 2047. Even when this happens,
- [Why SpaceX Will Catch Super Heavy](https://primalnebula.com/why-spacex-will-catch-super-heavy/) - In 2013, SpaceX announced that they were going to try landing their Falcon 9 rocket back on Earth using its own engines. To add to the complexity of this idea, they were going to try landing on a floating droneship in the middle of the ocean. Something like this had never been done before and
- [India: The Most Efficient Space Program In The World](https://primalnebula.com/the-most-efficient-space-program-in-the-world/) - In 1961 the Soviet Union launched the first human into space. In 1969 America put the first man on the Moon. In 2019 China landed the first spacecraft on the far side of the Moon. Since day one, the spaceflight industry has been extremely competitive, with countries developing the most advanced technologies and pushing the
- [NASA's Secret Weapon - Guppy the airplane](https://primalnebula.com/nasas-secret-weapon/) - On the 16th of July 1969, the Saturn V rocket left Earth taking the Apollo 11 crew to the Moon - a key moment in achieving President Kennedy’s goal of landing a man on the Moon by the end of the decade. This moment took hundreds of thousands of NASA employees and a decades worth
- [What Will Happen to the International Space Station?](https://primalnebula.com/what-will-happen-to-the-international-space-station/) - 24 years ago, the first module of the International Space Station was launched into orbit. Over the last two decades, it has been the home to hundreds of astronauts, conducting an incredible amount of scientific research to help us improve life on Earth and future journeys into space. But how long does the space station
- [Why don't SpaceX rockets have adverts on them?](https://primalnebula.com/why-dont-rockets-have-adverts-on-them/) - In the year 2000, a Russian rocket launched from Kazakhstan carrying one of the first pieces of the International Space Station into orbit. This was the beginning of a fantastic partnership between the US and Russia - and one of the most extraordinary achievements in spaceflight. Although this may look like a normal rocket launch,
- [Will Starship Fail Like The Space Shuttle?](https://primalnebula.com/will-starship-fail-like-the-space-shuttle/) - The year is 1972, marking a significant milestone in human space exploration with the successful completion of the final Apollo mission to the moon. President Nixon's announcement of a new American spacecraft, the Space Shuttle, reverberates throughout the world, captivating the imaginations of people from all walks of life. This groundbreaking vehicle, envisioned as a
- [How does SpaceX transport the Falcon 9?](https://primalnebula.com/how-does-spacex-transport-the-falcon-9/) - When it comes to spaceflight, rocket companies usually go above and beyond to document every aspect of their launches. Back in the Apollo days, TV stations covered the entire length of the Apollo 11 mission in great detail, reaching a viewership of 600 million people around the world when Neil Armstrong walked on the moon.
- [How SpaceX Gets These Amazing Camera Shots](https://primalnebula.com/how-spacex-film-rocket-launches/) - Those of us SpaceX fans that have been following the launches for a while now will be well accustomed to seeing incredible camera shots like this. These super high detailed shots provide a great spectacle during the launch procedure, stage separation and the always exciting landing procedure. But how are we able to get these
- [Communicating with space, how do we do it?](https://primalnebula.com/how-we-communicate-with-space/) - Sputnik, the very first artificial satellite, was launched by the Soviet Union in 1957, marking a significant milestone in space exploration. It served as a catalyst for advancements in satellite technology and paved the way for future space missions. In 2018, SpaceX made headlines by launching Elon Musk's Tesla Roadster into an orbit around the
- [Moon](https://primalnebula.com/moon/)
- [The Secret Hubble That Never Launched](https://primalnebula.com/the-secret-hubble-that-never-launched/) - On the 24th of April, 1990, Space Shuttle Discovery launched the Hubble telescope into orbit, marking a significant milestone in space exploration. This groundbreaking mission aimed to unveil the mysteries of the cosmos and provide humanity with unprecedented views of our universe. The anticipation and excitement surrounding this event were palpable, as scientists and enthusiasts
- [Hubble’s 13 Billion Year Old Photo](https://primalnebula.com/how-long-does-hubble-have-left/) - On the 24th of April, 1990, Space Shuttle Discovery launched the Hubble telescope into orbit. This was an exciting time for space exploration as Hubble promised to produce mind boggling images that would show us an early view of our universe as it was forming. Nothing as adcanced as Hubble had ever been launched into space,
- [Why is Earth's atmosphere leaking into space?](https://primalnebula.com/why-is-earths-atmosphere-leaking-into-space/) - How Auroras affect our atmosphereOur magnetic fieldEscaping oxygen particlesCusp aurorasResources In the year 2000, a German satellite called CHAMP was launched into orbit to study the Earth’s atmosphere and magnetic field. It operated for over 10 years and although it's relatively unknown, it made an unexpected discovery that taught us some interesting things about our
- [Hubble Space Telescope](https://primalnebula.com/hubble-space-telescope/)
- [The Space Debris Problem](https://primalnebula.com/the-space-debris-problem/) - In November 2019, this Chinese rocket lifted off from XiChang, carrying two navigation satellites into orbit. After the rocket’s first stage did its job, it fell back to Earth and landed right on top of someone's house. Not only did this destroy the house, but the yellow smoke coming out of the rocket filled the
- [How SpaceX Mastered Starship's Welding](https://primalnebula.com/how-spacex-mastered-starships-welding/) - If you’ve been following Starship from the very beginning, you will know that it didn’t always look this good. The first Starship prototypes looked incredibly rough, not like something that could ever survive a journey into space. The Starships that SpaceX produce now look much more sophisticated, with smoother metal work and welds that are
- [SpaceX's Explosive Raptor Engine Problem](https://primalnebula.com/spacexs-explosive-raptor-engine-problem/) - In May 2021, Starship prototype SN15 touched down on the ground under the power of three raptor engines, completing SpaceX’s first successful test flight. Years of work led up to this point - and it seemed that the goal of getting to Mars was now a little bit closer. But for the engineers working on
- [NASA's Space Jetpack - The Spacewalk From Hell](https://primalnebula.com/the-spacewalk-from-hell/) - In 1903, the Wright Brothers invented the world’s first successful airplane. Just 13 years later, Robert Goddard launched the world’s very first liquid fueled rocket, a technology that would develop into the incredible machines we have today. These flying machines all have one thing in common, to many, they seemed like an iimpossible dream at
- [Where Does SpaceX Get Their Rocket Fuel?](https://primalnebula.com/where-does-spacex-get-their-rocket-fuel/) - Over the last decade, the world of spaceflight has become an increasingly competitive industry. We’ve seen private companies burst onto the scene with money and ambition - and we’re now at the point where scenes the Falcon 9 landing have become routine. Through these incredible advancements in rocket reusability, we’ve seen the overall cost of
- [Why SpaceX Bought a Robotic Dog](https://primalnebula.com/why-spacex-bought-a-robotic-dog/) - At the end of 2018, SpaceX started to increase their activity in the quiet town of Boca Chica. It became clear that this was where they were going to start building and testing their massive Starship rockets. Starship was originally going to be built in California out of carbon fiber - but a sudden change
- [Why do some rocket launches look like this?](https://primalnebula.com/why-do-some-rocket-launches-look-like-this/) - This is the Falcon 9 launching from Vandenberg Air Force Base in California, a state known for its vibrant aerospace industry and contributions to space exploration. The Falcon 9, a two-stage rocket developed by SpaceX, has become a familiar sight in the skies, captivating audiences with its impressive launches and groundbreaking missions. This particular launch
- [Could SpaceX's Starship replace traditional airliners?](https://primalnebula.com/could-spacexs-starship-replace-traditional-airliners/) - In the year 1620, the Mayflower embarked on an arduous 64-day journey, navigating the vast Atlantic Ocean to transport the first Pilgrims from England to America. Centuries later, in 1919, aviators Alcock and Brown accomplished a monumental feat by completing the first non-stop transatlantic flight, soaring from Canada to Ireland in under 16 hours. Fast
- [Atmosphere](https://primalnebula.com/atmosphere/)
- [Terran 1 Experiences Second Stage Anomaly During Maiden Launch](https://primalnebula.com/terran-1-experiences-second-stage-anomaly-during-maiden-launch/) - After two previous scrubs due to various issues with the rocket, Relativity Space’s Terran 1 launched on its maiden flight on Wednesday, reaching Max-Q but ultimately failing in flight due to an issue with the second stage. Overview Late Wednesday evening at 23:25 ET, Terran 1 lifted off into the night sky creating a spectacular
- [How NASA transported the James Webb $10 billion telescope](https://primalnebula.com/how-nasa-transported-the-james-webb-telescope/) - On Christmas day 2021, the James Webb telescope finally launched on its long journey to explore our Universe. After years of delays and billions of dollars spent, the telescope was now on its way to lagrange point 2, an area in space 1.5 million km away from Earth. The telescope took 30 days to get
- [Vacuum](https://primalnebula.com/vacuum/)
- [How far can Voyager 1 go before we lose contact?](https://primalnebula.com/how-far-can-voyager-1-go-before-we-lose-contact/) - In 1977, the Voyager 1 space probe was launched to study the outer solar system. The two Voyager space probes have become the longest operating spacecrafts in spaceflight history. 45 years later, Voyager 1 is now 24 Billion kilometres from Earth and travelling at 61,000km/h. That's 15 Billion miles and 38,000 mph. Voyager 2 is
- [SpaceX Announces In-Flight Starlink WiFi Service with 500-Mbps Speeds](https://primalnebula.com/spacex-starlink-in-flight-wifi-service/) - If you’ve ever been on a flight and purchased the onboard WiFi, you’ll know that this experience is almost always followed by instant regret. After entering your card details and dealing with a crappy login page, you’re faced with an internet connection that belongs in the 90’s. But airplane WiFi isn’t even a new thing.
- [What If We Turned On Voyager 1’s Camera?](https://primalnebula.com/what-if-we-turned-on-voyager-1s-camera/) - Voyager 1 has two vidicon cameras onboard which are essentially very early television cameras using analog to digital technology.
- [NASA’s Ingenuity Helicopter Reaches 50 Flights on Mars](https://primalnebula.com/nasas-ingenuity-helicopter-reaches-50-flights-on-mars/) - Nearly 2 years after Ingenuity’s maiden flight, the helicopter has completed its 50th flight on Mars. Ingenuity quickly surpassed its technology demonstration phase with its first 5 flights before transitioning to its operations demonstration phase which continues today. How Is a Helicopter Able to Fly on Mars? Whilst powered flights on Mars have now been
- [Gravity](https://primalnebula.com/gravity/)
- [When will the SpaceX Starman return to Earth?](https://primalnebula.com/when-will-starman-return-to-earth/) - On the 6th of February 2018, the Falcon Heavy launched Starman in a Tesla Roadster into space. Normally, for the first test flight of a brand new rocket, companies will use what's known as a mass simulator. This is usually just a block of heavy metal placed in the payload bay to simulate what the
- [SpaceX 2023 review: Starship, Reusability, and the Year of the Heavy](https://primalnebula.com/spacex-review-starship-and-falcon-9-launches/) - When SpaceX CEO Elon Musk announced their goal of launching 100 Falcon rockets in 2023, it appeared to be a daunting number of missions. Though SpaceX did not reach this goal, all 96 Falcon launches were a success. With 2 impressive Starship test flights in addition, this culminated in a magnificent year for the world
- [Expendable Falcon Heavy Launches ViaSat-3 Mission](https://primalnebula.com/expendable-falcon-heavy-launches-viasat-3-mission/) - SpaceX’s Falcon Heavy rocket has successfully launched the ViaSat-3 Americas mission to a Geostationary Earth Orbit from historic LC-39A. Despite being Falcon Heavy’s sixth launch, this was the first fully expendable mission for the vehicle. Build-up to Launch A little over two weeks ago, following rollout to the pad, SpaceX fired up Falcon Heavy’s 27
- [Starship Set for Flight Test as FAA Grant Launch License](https://primalnebula.com/starship-set-for-orbital-launch-attempt-as-faa-grant-launch-license/) - SpaceX are targeting April 17 at 12:00 UTC for the inaugural launch of Starship Super Heavy. The mission is the vehicle’s first integrated flight test and aims to provide SpaceX with vital data which will be used in preparation for future launches. Now that the FAA has granted a launch license, SpaceX can now proceed
- [Why SpaceX Briefly Stopped Launching Rockets In 2021](https://primalnebula.com/why-spacex-briefly-stopped-launching-rockets-in-2021/) - In February 2018, SpaceX launched the Falcon Heavy rocket for the first time. This was an incredible launch which showed the world exactly what SpaceX was capable of. But just a few weeks later, another SpaceX launch took off with much less publicity. This was the launch of satellites Tintin A and B, SpaceX's very
- [Why SpaceX Built Its Own City Called Starbase](https://primalnebula.com/why-spacex-built-its-own-city/) - At the end of 2018, a local resident of Boca Chica shared an image of a new structure at the SpaceX site. Most people assumed that this was nothing more than a new water tower. But after rounds of speculation, SpaceX revealed that this structure was actually the beginnings of Starship. At the time, SpaceX’s
- [How Long Does Curiosity Have Left?](https://primalnebula.com/how-long-does-curiosity-have-left/) - On the 24th of January 2004, the Opportunity rover touched down on the surface of Mars. Opportunity was one of two rovers tasked with finding ancient evidence of water on the Martian surface, and after travelling 45km over the incredible Martian landscape, it did exactly that ... but it didn't stop there. Despite a life expectancy of just 90 days,
- [How Many Times Can SpaceX Reuse The Falcon 9 in 2023?](https://primalnebula.com/how-many-times-can-spacex-reuse-the-falcon-9/) - On the 21st of December 2015, SpaceX made history by landing their first Falcon 9 booster back on land. After years of development and testing, SpaceX was one step closer to dramatically reducing the cost of spaceflight, and since then more than 200 boosters have been landed with most of them being reused. When the
- [Earth](https://primalnebula.com/earth/)
- [Apollo Program](https://primalnebula.com/apollo-program/)
- [Why doesn’t the sound of a rocket launch kill you?](https://primalnebula.com/why-doesnt-the-sound-of-a-rocket-launch-kill-you/) - The sound suppression system and water deluge play a vital role in mitigating the destructive effects of the intense sound energy generated during rocket launches. The recent comeback of the Falcon Heavy after a three-year hiatus showcased the tremendous power of its 27 Merlin engines, which collectively produced a staggering 5 and a half million
- [Saturn V](https://primalnebula.com/saturn-v/)
- [Starship Completes Exciting Maiden Flight, Fails Before Stage Separation](https://primalnebula.com/starship-completes-exciting-maiden-flight-fails-before-stage-separation/) - The most powerful rocket ever developed, Starship Super Heavy, took flight for the first time from Starbase, Texas on April 20. Though the vehicle reached Max-Q, the rocket experienced an anomaly before stage separation. Countdown Following a booster pressurisation issue which forced a scrub on Monday, SpaceX were ready to proceed with a second launch
- [Why SpaceX Bought An Entire Village](https://primalnebula.com/why-spacex-bought-an-entire-village/) - In the summer of 2012, SpaceX were looking to expand their rocket launching business outside of Florida. At the time, the company had only flown their Falcon 9 rocket a handful of times, but with a rapidly increasing launch schedule, an additional launch site was required to meet their needs. That's when they started looking at a small village in
- [Falcon 9](https://primalnebula.com/falcon-9-article/)
- [NASA](https://primalnebula.com/nasa-article/)
- [SpaceX's Starship Reaches Space for First Time](https://primalnebula.com/starship-set-for-its-2nd-flight-test/) - Elon Musk's SpaceX launched their 121m tall Starship for a 2nd time, completing a number of test objectives. Though first stage flight and the hot staging separation manoeuvre was a success, the company lost contact with Starship around 8 minutes after lift-off. Starship LaunchIntegrated Flight Test 1Integrated Flight Test 2 UpgradesBooster 9 & Ship 25Countdown
- [Starship’s 2nd Flight Test Approaches Pending FAA Go Ahead](https://primalnebula.com/starships-2nd-flight-test-approaches-pending-faa-go-ahead/) - SpaceX’s Starship rocket is currently awaiting final regulatory approval before the vehicle’s 2nd flight test can take place. Launch of the world’s most powerful rocket is set to lift-off no earlier than late October. Test Flight 1Full Stack ReturnsBooster 9 and Ship 25 UpgradesOrbital Launch Site UpgradesFAATesting and Production Elsewhere Test Flight 1 On April
- [Starship Orbital Launch Nears but Obstacles Remain](https://primalnebula.com/starship-orbital-launch-nears-but-obstacles-remain/) - As the maiden launch of Starship Super Heavy grows closer with further progress at Starbase in recent days, several milestones remain prior to lift-off. Recent Starship Milestones In recent days, installation of the orbital launch mount shielding panels has been completed. The shielding panels aim to provide increased protection of the launch mount whilst some
- [SpaceX](https://primalnebula.com/spacex-article/)
- [Concorde](https://primalnebula.com/concorde/)
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- [Store](https://primalnebula.com/store/) - PRINTS Voyager Falcon 9 Space Shuttle Saturn V Apollo 11 Starship Starman SPACE ART High quality fine art posters, canvases and framed prints made by the Primal Space creator and artist Ewan Cunninngham
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- [About](https://primalnebula.com/about/) - ABOUT PRIMAL NEBULA Dedicated to producing high quality videos all about space, science and engineering Primal Nebula is part of the Primal Space YouTube channel which started out as a hobby by creator Ewan Cunningham. Primal Space has gone onto to be one of the most watched space YouTube channels. With over 600,000 subscribers and
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